CRASH COURSE LINK: https://youtu.be/AQ5vty8f9Xc
KAHN ACADEMY LINK: https://youtu.be/ZQcf9xLABa0 LUNAR PHASE QUIZZES:
What Plants Are Legumes?
Probably the most common legumes in home gardens are peas and beans of all kinds (snap, soy, lima, broad...), but this large plant family contains upwards of 16,000 species. We generally think of legumes as foods for humans or livestock. Although not all of them are edible, many are. Besides peas and beans, there are peanuts, lentils, carob, alfalfa, and clover. But some leguminous plants are grown simply as ornamentals, like baptisia, lupins, wisteria and locust trees. What's so Great About Using Legumes in the Garden? Legumes are often used as cover crops or mixed into lawn seed mixes because of their ability to fix nitrogen. Fixing nitrogen means converting pure nitrogen (N2), which plants and animals cannot access, into its ammonia form (NH3), which we can use. Bacteria are required to make this change and the nodules on the roots of legume plants are where Rhizobium, a soil bacteria, enter the root and start to multiply. It's the bacteria that actually fix the nitrogen, which the plants then take up. The Rhizobium does not hurt the plants; it's a symbiotic relationship. You can actually see the nodules on the roots with your eyes. They are white or grey before they start fixing nitrogen, but they turn pink or red as the process gets underway. Perennial legume roots with older nodules on them can look like the fingers of a hand. On garden vegetables, they may get to the size of a pea. Some legumes fix nitrogen better than others. Green beans are on the low end, compared to peanuts, broad beans and soybeans. The nitrogen doesn't disappear immediately after the plants die. That's why it is recommended you cut pea and bean plants at their base and leave their roots in the soil. Even after the top growth is gone, the nitrogen-fixing nodules continue feeding other plants.
Nitrogen
•Makes up about 78% of the atmosphere •Nitrogen gas is colorless, odorless, and generally inert or unreactive. •Most organisms can’t use unreactive N2. •Nitrogen compounds are vital components of foods, fertilizers, and explosives. Nitrogen Compounds •Nitrogen must be converted to more chemically available forms for plants and animals to use. •N2 – atmospheric nitrogen •N2O – nitrous oxide •NH3 – ammonia •NH4 – ammonium •NO2 – nitrites •NO3 - nitrates Nitrogen Cycle •Describes how nitrogen (N2) moves between various reservoirs: •Plants •Animals •Bacteria •Atmosphere •Soil •Describes the processes by which those reservoirs exchange N2 into usable nitrogen Vocabulary •Reservoir – A place where anything is kept or stored. •Process - A series of actions that produce something or that lead to a particular result. Processes in the Nitrogen Cycle •Fixation •Nitrification •Assimilation •Ammonification •Denitrification Nitrogen Fixation •Process where N2 molecules in the air break apart and combine with other atoms to form ammonium or NH4. •Plant nutrients are the result of nitrogen fixation. •Nitrogen gets “fixed” when it combines with oxygen or hydrogen. 3 - Ways to “fix” Nitrogen 1.Atmospheric Fixation 2.Industrial Fixation 3.Biological Fixation Atmospheric Fixation •Energy from lightning breaks N2 molecules apart. •N2 atoms combine with oxygen forming nitrogen oxides (N2O). •N2O dissolves in rain, forming Nitrates (NO3). •Nitrates are carried to the ground by rain. Industrial Fixation •Under certain conditions industrial plants combine nitrogen and hydrogen to form ammonia (NH3). •Ammonia is used as a fertilizer. Biological Fixation •Free Living Bacteria – highly specialized bacteria live in soil and combines N2 with H2. •Bacteria fixes 30% of available N2. •Produces ammonium (NH4) •This is where most nitrogen fixing is completed. •Symbiotic Relationship Bacteria - bacteria live in root nodules of pulse family plants. •Provides plants with ammonia in exchange for the plant’s carbohydrates and a protected home. •Legumes fix 70% of available N2. Nitrification •Nitrifying bacteria in the ground combine ammonia with oxygen to form nitrites (NO2). •Another group of nitrifying bacteria converts nitrites to nitrates (NO3). •Green plants absorb nitrates (assimilation),which are eaten by consumers. Assimilation •NH4 Organic N2 •Organic N2 compounds –amino acids, chlorophyll, and nucleic acid •Produced when plants take up NH4 •Organisms near top of food chain eat plants taking up biologically fixed nitrogen. Ammonification •Part of the decay process •When a plant or animal dies or leaves waste products, decomposers like fungi and bacteria turn N2 back into ammonia . •Ammonia is absorbed and stored in the soil. Denitrification •Converts nitrates (NO3) in the soil to N2 •Denitrifying bacteria live deep in swampy sediments where O2 is not easily accessible. •These bacteria take O2 from nitrates leaving the byproduct nitrogen gas (N2). •Returns nitrogen to the atmosphere to begin the cycle again Lunar Cycle – the change in appearance of the Moon as it makes one full revolution around the Earth.
New Moon •The first phase of the Moon and it appears unlit from Earth. •The Moon is between the Earth and the Sun. Waxing Crescent •The lighted part of the Moon as seen from Earth is increasing. •The light on the right is new and bright. •Think about the shape of a crescent roll. First Quarter •The Moon is one quarter of the way through its cycle. •From the Earth it appears to be half lit on the right. Full Moon •From the Earth the Moon appears fully lit. •The Earth is between the Sun and the Moon. Waning Gibbous •From the Earth, the Moon appears to be more than half lit on the left. •The lighted part is now decreasing. Third or Last Quarter •The Moon is three-quarters of the way through its cycle. •From the Earth it appears to be half lit on the left. Waning Crescent •The lighted part of the Moon as seen from Earth is decreasing on the left. •The shape of the light is crescent. Can you… 1.Describe why the Moon changes shape? 2.Predict the phases of the Moon? 3.Label a blank lunar cycle diagram? Thermal (heat) Energy
3 Ways Thermal Energy can be Transferred • Conduction • Convection • Radiation Conduction •The movement of heat or electricity through matter •Solids are good conductors, particularly metals. Examples of Conduction – (direct contact) •Touching a metal spoon in a cup of hot liquid •Putting a heating pad on your back •Feeling the heat from a hot poker in a fire place •Placing a hand on top of a basket of hot rolls Convection •The transfer of thermal energy though a fluid (gas or liquid) •Due to differences in density •Hot fluid rises while cold fluid sinks. Examples of Convection –(hot rising/cold sinking) •Macaroni rising and falling in a pot of boiling water •Lava lamp rising and sinking •Hot magma rising in the mantle, cold sinking •Hot air rising in the atmosphere, cold sinking •Hot water rising in the oceans, cold sinking Radiation •Energy transmitted in waves or a stream of particles •Travels through space and other types of matter Examples of Radiation - (waves or particles of energy) •Laying out in the sun at a beach •Holding your hand over a burning match without touching it •Feeling the warmth of a bonfire •Holding your hands over a light bulb Energy Transformation (Conversion)
Conservation of Energy •Energy can neither be destroyed nor created. •Energy doesn’t disappear. •Energy just transforms from one form into another. Ex: Electric energy converts to heat energy on a stove. Potential Energy Energy that is stored Forms of Potential Energy Mechanical Chemical Nuclear Electrical Kinetic Energy Energy that is in motion Forms of Kinetic Energy Mechanical Radiant Electrical Thermal Sound Mechanical Energy - KE The energy a body possesses because of its motion caused by gravity or elasticity Ex: Flowing water Winds Arrow shot from a bow Bouncing on a trampoline Mechanical Energy - PE The energy a body possesses because of its position Energy stored by gravity or elastic potential Ex: Book on a table Compressed spring Rubber band pulled back Thermal Energy - KE • Also referred to as heat energy •The total energy of atoms and molecules that are constantly in motion. Ex: Burner of a stovetop turned on Hot cup of cocoa Fire Radiant Energy – KE •Also referred to as solar or light energy •Energy caused by the movement of electromagnetic waves Ex: Light emitted by lightbulbs Sun Microwaves Sound Energy - KE •Energy in the form wave motion •Vibrations spread in all directions as one vibrating object touches another causing it to vibrate •Ex: Drum Tuning fork Talking Electrical Energy - KE Moving electrons from one point to another in a conductor Ex: Electric current in wires Lightning Electrical Energy - PE Stored electrons not moving Ex. Light bulb turned off Stove turned off Power outages Electrons in clouds Chemical Energy - PE Energy stored in chemical substances. Ex: Fuel Explosives Food Batteries Wood Nuclear Energy - PE •Also known as atomic energy •The energy stored in the nucleus of an atom •Can be released by fusion (combining atoms nuclei) or fission (splitting atoms nuclei) Ex: Nuclear power plants Renewable Energy Resources
•Energy sources which naturally renew or replenish themselves over a period of time •Not depleted by use What do we mean by advantage and disadvantage? •Advantage means for a good effect, favorable gain, or desired end. •Disadvantage means for a bad effect, unfavorable, or undesired end. Biomass •Energy from any material that comes from plants or microorganisms that were recently living •Trees, branches, scraps of bark, and recycled paper are examples of biomass energy •The energy comes from burning it. •It becomes biofuel when mixed with gasoline, such as ethanol. Advantages 1.Can be stored and used when needed 2.Releases less harmful pollutants than gasoline 3.Uses materials that might normally be discarded Disadvantages 1.Growing crops for biofuels requires large amounts of land and pesticides. 2.Land could be used for growing food. 3.Pesticides can pollute. Wind •Wind energy is captured with wind turbines. •The blades turn a generator(located inside the tower), which creates electricity. •Groups of wind turbines are known as wind farms. •Found near farmland, in narrow mountain passes, and even in the ocean Advantages 1.Can be very efficient and cheap in places with steady winds 2.It’s clean, no pollutants Disadvantages 1.Wind is inconsistent. 2.Not a good source of energy in all locations. 3.Dangerous for bats and birds Hydroelectric •Energy made by flowing water •Hydroelectric power plants are located on large dams, which control the flow of a river. •A controlled amount of water flows through the tunnels and turns huge turbines which generate electricity. Advantages 1.Energy is inexpensive to harness. 2.Because rivers are everywhere, it’s an available resource. 3.Reliable because engineers control the flow of water Disadvantages 1.Damming a river causes a great environmental impact for people, plants, and wildlife. 2.Dependent on rainfall to fill reservoir 3.Expensive to build a dam Geothermal •Heat energy from deep within the Earth •Water is warmed by magma and pumped to the surface. •Geothermal heat pumps create heat for houses and other buildings. •Steam can also be brought to the surface and used to turn a turbine to generate electricity. • 90% of people in Iceland use this heat source. Advantages 1.Clean 2.Does not require another fuel source to produce it 3.Does not emit any harmful pollutants into the air Disadvantages 1.Not a wide spread source of energy 2.High installment costs to build power plants 3.Not easily transported Solar •Energy from the sun •Active solar energy uses technology to capture the sun’s rays (solar cells). •Passive solar energy gets energy from the way sunlight naturally changes throughout the day. (house might face a certain way to capture more of the sun’s rays) Advantages 1.Relatively simple technology 2.Little maintenance 3.Reliable and quiet 4.Free energy after purchasing solar panels Disadvantages 1.Energy cannot be created at night. 2.Cloud cover reduces power. 3.Works best if at the optimal angle towards the sun 4.Only converts 20% of the sun’s energy to electricity Generating electricity from renewable resources 1.Solar and biomass are used to induce heat. 2.The energy is used to heat water. 3.The water turns to steam. 4.The steam turns a turbine (geothermal). Or water turns it (hydroelectric) and wind turns it (wind). 5.The turbine shaft is connected to the shaft of a generator. 6.Magnets spin within wire coils to produce electricity.
https://phys.libretexts.org/TextBooks_and_TextMaps/University_Physics/Book%3A_University_Physics_(OpenStax)/Map%3A_University_Physics_II_-_Thermodynamics%2C_Electricity%2C_and_Magnetism_(OpenStax)/16%3A_Electromagnetic_Waves/16.5%3A_The_Electromagnetic_Spectrum
Waves •A disturbance that travels through space and matter •Transfers energy, not matter •Travel through electrical and magnetic fields Examples: light, microwaves, radio waves, and X-rays. Crest •The highest point on a wave is called the crest. Trough •The lowest point on a wave is called the trough. Wavelength •The distance between successive crests or troughs •Measures one complete wave Amplitude •The maximum extent of a wave measured from the position of equilibrium Frequency •The number of crests of a wave that move past a given point in a given unit of time •Measured in Hertz (Hz) Radio Waves •Longest wavelength •Lowest frequency •Coolest temperature •Examples: FM/AM radio stations, stars Microwaves •Need close proximity to transmitter •Examples: microwaves, routers, cell phones, stars Infrared Waves •“Infra” means below •These waves are just below visible light •Examples: remote controls, flames, lamps, stars Visible Light •All visible light •ROYGBIV •Examples: light bulbs, fire, stars Ultraviolet Light •Often called “black light” •Examples: sterilization, stars (sunburn anyone?), haunted houses X-Ray •High frequency waves •Examples: see inside organisms, airport security, dentist office, stars Gamma Rays •Highest frequency waves •Highest temperature (blue) •Examples: radiation therapy (cancer), sterilization, stars Studying the Universe •Astronomers use all kinds electromagnetic waves to study the characteristics (temperature, energy, color) of stars. •They can also use the EMS to determine chemical composition. Spectroscopy •A measurement technique which allows astronomers to see light that is absorbed, emitted, or scattered by materials •How do we know what stars are made out of? Star Composition •Use the class set of absorption spectrums to determine which elements are present in each star. https://www.pbs.org/video/nova-the-electromagnetic-spectrum/ Parallax •Astronomers can measure the distance of stars using a method called parallax. •They measure the star twice per year. •Every 6 months the Earth has moved nearly 186 million miles from it’s previous point due to its revolution around the Sun.
Science 8: Light Waves
www.youtube.com/watch?v=fm__GAlrBuQ Visible Light •The part of the electromagnetic spectrum, between infrared and ultraviolet, that is visible to the human eye. •Shorter waves – higher frequency and energy •Longer waves – lower frequency and energy Visible Light Spectrum •Produced when light passes through a prism, slowing the wavelength into each separate color. •ROY G. BIV - red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet Colors •We see these waves as the colors of the rainbow. •Each color has a different wavelength and frequency. •Red has the longest wavelength and shortest frequency •Violet has the shortest wavelength and highest frequency. •Seen together, they make white light. Visible Objects •For an object to be visible it must produce its own light or reflect light. •Produces own light - Sun, candle, flashlight •Reflects light - Moon, mirror, glass Vocabulary •Opaque – A material that reflects or absorbs all of the light that strikes it. (wood, metal, cardboard) •Transparent – transmits light (glass, water, air) •Translucent – scatters light as the light passes through (wax paper, frosted glass) How light travels •Light travels in straight lines. •This straight line motion can be: •Reflected •Diffused •Refracted Absorbed Reflection •Occurs when parallel rays of light hit a smooth surface. •All the rays are reflected at the same angle. •Law of reflection: the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence. •Angle of incidence - measure of the angle of a ray to the surface normal (90o to the surface) Diffusion •When parallel rays of light hit a bumpy surface. •Each ray obeys the law of reflection, but each ray hits the surface at a different angle. The light is scattered. Refraction •When light waves enter a new medium at an angle, their speeds changes. •The change in speed causes them to bend, or change direction. •Index of Refraction – a measure of how much a ray of light bends when it enters that material Lenses •When light traveling in straight parallel lines passes through an object that is curved like a lens, the light is refracted at different angles. •Convex or converging lenses bend light toward a central focal point. •Concave or divergent lenses bend light outward away from a focal point. Absorption •Light does not pass through or reflect from material, but remains in the material as energy. •What happens to the black surface? Color of objects •Color – Objects reflect colored light that is not absorbed. •We see objects color as the reflected color. Colors of Light •Primary •Red, Blue and Green •When combined in equal amounts, primary colors produce white light. •If combined in varying amounts, they can produce any other color. •Secondary •Yellow, Cyan and Magenta •Primary colors combined in varying amounts •Complementary - form when a primary color and a secondary color combine to make white. •Yellow and blue = white •Y + B = W or R + G + B = W Brightness •A relative expression of the intensity of the energy output of a visible light source •Brightness is determined by the light wave’s amplitude. •The greater the amplitude, the brighter the light. •Distance from light source also affects brightness. Nonrenewable Energy Resources
•Energy resources which do not naturally renew or replenish themselves •Depleted by use Fossil Fuels •Coal, oil, and natural gas •Formed when layers of buried plant, gases, and animals are exposed to intense heat and pressure over a long period of time •Currently the world’s primary energy source Coal •Fossilized carbon •Combustible (burns) •Recovered through mining •Occurs in layer or veins called coal beds or coal seams •Burned to produce heat or electricity Coal – 4 Types •Lignite – young, brownish, less value •Subbituminous –black lignite •Bituminous – soft, dense, black •Anthracite – hard, black lustrous, best Advantages 1.No shortage any time soon 2.Inexpensive 3.Reduces dependence on oil. 4.Creates jobs Disadvantages 1.Environmental impacts (burning, by-products, acid rain, increased greenhouse gases) 2.Mining impact on the land 3.Impact on miner’s health Oil •Known as petroleum or crude oil •Thick black liquid •Composed mostly of hydrogen and carbon (hydrocarbons) •Found in specific rock reservoirs •Extracted through drilling Advantages 1.Small amount produces a lot of energy 2.Easy to transport 3.Easy to produce 4.Constant reliable resource for years to come Disadvantages 1.Emits greenhouse gases 2.Spills cause water and land pollution and death to wildlife 3.Harmful emissions from plants can make people sick Natural Gas •Found deep in the earth and drilled to extract •Flammable, colorless, odorless •Made of methane and other hydrocarbons Advantages Compared to coal and oil 1.Less damage to the environment 2.Burns cleaner 3.More abundant 4.Safer 5.Cheaper 6.Best among fossil fuels Disadvantages 1.Gas leaks can be dangerous. Can cause explosions 2.Burning creates greenhouse gases. 3.Expensive infrastructure for production and distribution Fracking •A technique designed to recover gas and oil from shale rock •Drilling process similar to oil •A high-pressure water mixture is directed into the rock to break up the cracks and release the gas and oil inside. •Can be drilled horizontally or vertically Advantages 1.Can reach more oil and gas than traditional methods 2.Makes us less dependent on foreign oil 3.Less air pollution 4.Creates jobs Disadvantages 1.Keeps us from developing renewable resources 2.Uses a lot of water in the process 3.May pollute groundwater 4.Noise pollution 5.Chemicals used unknown Nuclear •The energy generated during nuclear fusion, especially when used to generate electricity •Fusion – two lighter nuclei fuse to form a heavier nucleus. Energy is given off. •Nuclear materials – uranium and plutonium. Advantages 1.Low pollution 2.Reliable 3.Low cost to produce electricity 4.Little fusion material needed to produce a lot of energy 5.Easily transported Disadvantages 1.Environmental impact in mining uranium 2.High cost in securing radioactive waste 3.Expensive to build a plant and purchase fuels 4.Accidents at plants are costly and dangerous Generating electricity from nonrenewable resources 1.Fossil fuels are burned to induce heat. Nuclear energy is produced from fusing atom nuclei. 2.The energy is used to heat water. 3.The water turns to steam. 4.The steam turns a turbine. 5.The turbine shaft is connected to the shaft of a generator. 6.Magnets spin within wire coils of the generator to produce electricity. |
Erik E. Mason
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